Digital participation outside institutional provision: implications of the access–competence gap for digital transformation in Ghana's basic education system

Hayford Mensah Ayerakwa, Millicent O. Awuku, Antoinette Tsiboe-Darko

Digital literacy has become a foundational competence for participation in contemporary educational, social, and economic life. However, debates surrounding children's digital engagement often oscillate between concerns about online vulnerability and assumptions that expanding connectivity automatically promotes digital inclusion. This study examines how digital access, digital literacy, educational engagement, and vulnerability intersect among Basic 8 students in Ghana. The study employed a mixed-methods design involving a cross-sectional survey of 823 students drawn from 24 public schools across three districts in Ghana's Central Region, complemented by a six-week ethnographic study in three selected schools. Composite indices were developed to measure digital access, digital literacy, educational engagement, and vulnerability, all demonstrating acceptable reliability (Cronbach's α = 0.76–0.88). Correlation and regression analyses were used to examine relationships among key constructs, while qualitative data provided contextual insights into students’ digital experiences. Findings reveal a paradoxical pattern of digital inclusion. Despite limited ICT infrastructure within schools, students reported substantial engagement with digital technologies through home-based access and mobile devices. Digital access was positively associated with digital literacy (r = .174, p < .001) and educational engagement (r = .444, p < .001), while vulnerability was negatively associated with digital access (r = −0.692, p < .001), digital literacy (r = −.105, p < .01), and educational engagement (r = −0.284, p < .001). Importantly, an access–competence gap was identified among 21.6% of students, indicating that access exceeded competence. Regression analysis further demonstrated that this gap was the strongest predictor of vulnerability (B = 0.326, p < .001), suggesting that exposure to digital environments without corresponding competencies increases susceptibility to online risks. The findings challenge access-centred approaches to digital inclusion by demonstrating that connectivity alone does not guarantee safe, meaningful, or empowering digital participation. The study argues for competence-centred digital inclusion policies that integrate digital literacy, online safety, information verification, and critical media education within basic education systems. By operationalising the concepts of vulnerability and the access–competence gap, the study advances understanding of digital inequality in Ghana and comparable low-resource contexts across sub-Saharan Africa.