Optimizing Human-Machine Interface for Real-Time AI Support in the Operating Room: the CVS Copilot

Lorenzo Arboit, Nicolas Chanel, Aditya Murali, Pietro Mascagni, Nicolas Padoy

Artificial intelligence (AI) systems for automated Critical View of Safety (CVS) assessment in laparoscopic cholecystectomy are nearing clinical translation. Beyond algorithmic performance, clinical safety and effectiveness depend on the quality of the human-machine interface (HMI). This work examines how AI-generated predictions should be presented and controlled intraoperatively. Seventeen surgeons, including residents, attending surgeons, and professors, took part in a mixed-methods, user-centered design study to optimize an intraoperative HMI for AI-assisted safe laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Interviews explored interaction modalities, timing of assistance, visualization strategies, and control mechanisms across surgical roles, and were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis and human-factors heuristics. Most surgeons (16/17) supported the use of AI for intraoperative decision support while rejecting autonomous decision-making. Attendings preferred minimal AI feedback at decisive moments (13/14), whereas residents favored optional guidance (3/3) with confidence indicators and on-demand anatomical overlays. Across interviews, surgeons consistently prioritized visual, surgeon-controlled, minimally intrusive displays, with the strongest support for a minimal overlay (16/17) and on-demand anatomical segmentation (13/17). Recurrent concerns included persistent overlays, haptic feedback, and numeric confidence displays, although these were not uniformly raised across the cohort. These findings informed the design of CVS Copilot, a surgeon-controlled, role-adaptive HMI that provides AI-based CVS assessment with minimal default visualization and optional overlays.